Jerome Bruner: Cognitive Learning Theorist

Kevin Jones

Indiana Wesleyan University

Dr. Dale Fowler

DOL 800 Human Development and Organizational Learning

June 1, 2007

Revised September 25, 2008

                                                       Revised January 5, 2009
Jerome Bruner: Cognitive Learning Theorist

Background

Jerome Bruner was born in New York City in 1915. His father died when he was 12 years of age and a as result the family moved quite often. This made his education challenging as he was enrolled in many different schools over the final six years of his K-12 years. Nonetheless, he did well enough to be admitted into Duke University where he graduated with a BA degree. He earned a PH.D. in Educational Psychology from Harvard in 1947.

During World War II Bruner worked as a social psychologist exploring propaganda public opinion and social attitudes for United States (U.S.) Army Intelligence. This work fit right in with his beliefs that learning was cognitive in nature and not behaviorialistic.

 Once Dr. Bruner earned his doctorate he became a full time faculty member at Harvard. Dr. Bruner co-founded and directed the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard.

Major Contribution to the Field of Learning

Cognitive processes may be defined as "the means whereby organisms achieve, retain, and transform information" (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956, p. vii). Dr. Bruner helped to develop identity categorization which can be defined as  "classifying a variety of stimuli as forms of the same thing. A response that is affected by learning" (Bruner et al). He and his associates theorized that what was considered to be many types of stimuli were in reality different varieties of the same type of stimuli.

Bruner and his associates developed an equivalence class or how "an individual responds to a set of discriminably different things as the same kind of thing or as amounting to the same thing" (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956, p. 4). For example, different shades of blue, although discriminably different in color, were typically identified as blue. Another example would be books that are similar in nature, such as mystery stories, and yet discriminably different in titles are all identified as mysteries.

Bruner identifies the phenomenon of the preemptive metaphor: "The technique by which many seemingly unrelated things are tied together by a common fear and a common avoidance" Bruner (1962, p. 12-13). The preemptive metaphor prevents learning and knowledge due to the nature of how it makes itself known. It is paralytic in nature.

Dr. Bruner (1990) notes that his study of cognitive learning was intended to be an effort to "establish meaning as the central figure of psychology-not stimuli and responses, not overtly observable behavior, not biological drives and their transformation, but meaning"  (p. 2). He and his colleagues were also not looking to make behavioralism better by adding conscious learning to it. Rather, they were looking to replace behaviorism with cognitive learning.   

Bruner (1990) give three reasons why culture is an inherent part of cognitive learning:

•          It is man's participation in culture and the realization of his mental powers through culture that makes it impossible to construct human psychology on the basis of the individual alone.

•          Given that psychology is so immersed in culture, it must be organized around those meaning-making meaning-using processes that connect man to culture.

•          Folk psychology which is a culture's attempt to determine what makes human beings tick (pp. 12-13).

When studying human behavior and learning one must look not only at what they do but also at what they say they do. One must also look at what others say they do. The study of the effect of culture on cognitive learning is not a simple matter of relativism from culture to culture but is rather the study of behavior and learning with that culture in order to gain an understanding of how learning occurs within that culture.

The treatment of the Jews during World War II was an attempt to dehumanize them through the forced violation of many of their religious beliefs. These beliefs were not simply culturally driven but a set of values to which they were committed. This commitment was violated through the acts of those determined to take away their sense of humanity.

There is within culture the ability to nurture learning and change. It begins with intentional change on the part of one member, or a few members, who then are able to demonstrate the value of the change. As others begin to make similar changes the changes become a part of the new culture.

Bruner (1990) notes that the most dreaded form of relativism is that which states "every belief is as good as every other" (p. 27). If one simply asks oneself how their worldview impacts how they see and understand the issue at hand they will be equipped to learn without falling into the trap of relativism. This type of questioning also allows one to unpack their thinking on an issue and perhaps to even learn how to see the issue from multiple perspectives. This can be construed as cognitive learning because the learning is intentional.

Bruner (1996) proposed a spiral curriculum in which when teaching a subject "you begin with an intuitive account that is well within the reach of a student, and then circle back later to a more formal or highly structured account until the learner has mastered the topic or subject" (p. 119). This process is also known as scaffolding on previous knowledge.

Bruner (1991) formulated the theory that narrative is an essential piece of learning through the use of language. Bruner believed that much of what is learned comes directly form narrative whether it is spoken or written. He defined narrative as having at least one of the following components.

          There is narrative diachronicity which is the idea that narratives build and take place over time. There is a sense when one is hearing a narrative that it was developed in context and unhurriedly. The second piece is particularity. This is the idea that the narrative is specific to a particular type of needed information. It may not be specific but it will make the intended point.

            The third component of narrative is intentional state entailment. The characters spoke of in the narrative have a specific set of values and look at things from a specific worldview. The fourth piece of narrative is hermeneutic composability. This is the idea that narratives can be interpreted within the context of the stories themselves. An example of this might be in ministry, when one is preparing a sermon from a Biblical narrative, one of the principles of contextual appropriateness is interpreting the story within the context of to whom the story was originally told.

            The fifth piece of narrative that Bruner (1991) identifies is canonicity and breach. This contains the idea that the reason the narrative is so important is that it is about a time when the extraordinary happened. The story details events which transcend the norm. The sixth concept of narrative is referentiality.  This contains the idea that the narrative will provide a principle that is applicable although it may not be clearly stated. The narrative refers to a current situation and may provide guidance.

            The seventh principle of narrative is genericness. This concept carries with it the idea that a narrative may not have specific application but that it does apply in a general way. For example, modesty is a general concept in Scripture but it is not defined specifically. The eight principle of narrative is normativeness. This is the idea that in the narrative there is information provided as to how one ought to act.

            The ninth principle of narrative is context sensitivity and negotiability. This requires the recipient of the narration to be willing to set aside their natural disbelief and to carefully consider what is being related. The final aspect of narrative is narrative accrual. The idea is that as stories are told they will be scaffolded; the new building on the old.

            We see many of these narrative "principles" listed by Bruner in the way Jesus sought to have His followers learn. He told stories that caught the interest of His listeners because they could relate with them. In the context of organizational learning it behooves those in leadership to understand the importance of narrative in the learning process. It may be as simple as members of the organization informally sharing stories of how things have been done in the organization or as complex as planned narratives but they need to be encouraged as a means for learning.

Intelligence

Bruner (1971) argues from a basis of belief in evolution that intelligence has grown as the need for it has grown. He sees the growth of intelligence as being a result of man's evolving from apes and the need for more intelligence in order to survive. Initially, the growth of intelligence was necessitated for the sake of survival and was not necessarily derived from intent.

Over time, Bruner believes, man began to "construct models of his world, not only templates that represent what he encounters and in what context, but also ones that permit him to go beyond them" ((Bruner, 1971, p. 5). This intelligence permits one to not only observe what is happening but to be able to predict what will happen next. The ability to predict means that so long as things happen in the way predicted the alert mechanisms of the brain remain calm but then the unpredicted begins to occur the alert mechanisms of the brain begin to work at full speed. In other words, not only can one deal with current information but also go beyond that information in order to act as needed.

Bruner (1971) also states that "man's intellect is not simply his own, but is communal in the sense that its unlocking or empowering depends upon the success of that culture in developing means to that end" (p. 7).  The implication is that one's culture dictates the extension of intelligence.

In Dr. Bruner's (1996) more recent writings he considers intelligence to "reflect a micro-culture of praxis: the reference books one uses, the notes one habitually takes, the computer programs and databases one relies on, …the network of friends, colleagues, or mentors on whom one leans for feedback" (p. 132). There is also the area of extended intelligence which postulates that one gleans intelligence from the minds and habits of friends with whom interaction takes place.

In the context of organizational learning there must be an understanding of the role culture plays in intelligence. There are questions that need to be asked to determine why increased intelligence in encouraged or discouraged within the organization. Does the organizational culture allow for, and even encourage, increased intelligence? If not, why not? Is there a fear in the mind of those in leadership that increased intelligence will lead to change for which they are unprepared? If so, what are those possible changes?

Multiple Intelligence

While Bruner does not directly address the idea and concept of multiple intelligences, there are some hints in his writings as to how he might view the idea. Bruner (1996) addresses the idea that there are different levels of learning and intelligence. Gardner (1983) speaks of "frames of mind or human intelligences" (p. 8). Gardner posits that there are several intelligences that are relatively independent of one another.

Gardner (1983) lists the following types of intelligences:

•          Linguistic

•          Musical

•          Logical-Mathematical

•          Spatial

•          Bodily-Kinesthetic

•          Personal

Bruner would seem to agree with this multiple intelligence approach although he would call them "native aptitudes" (Bruner, 1996, p. 26). Bruner addresses these aptitudes in the way he speaks of differing skills for differing occupations and interest. He would also make the argument that even these aptitudes are culture driven.

Bruner would also argue that schools develop a sort of "underground curriculum" (Bruner, 1996, p. 27) in order to address multiple intelligence issues due to the fact that issues in education are politically charged. In many educational settings the curriculum does not address multiple intelligences or learning styles since there is pressure to maintain a one size fits all style.

Bruner speaks to the issue of multiple intelligences when he addresses the issue of understanding how culture and environment play a role in learning. To attempt to encourage learning for all students through the use of a single type of instruction makes no sense to Bruner. One must understand how each student is reached and how they learn in order to meet the learning needs of the student.

In the context of organizational learning one must look at the methodology used to attempt increased intelligence. Does the methodology take into consideration the idea that there are different learning styles? Is the idea of multiple intelligences factored into training programs whether it is intentional or not?

One must also look at whether or not an organization can learn or if the learning is done within the organization by a collection of individuals. Argyris & Schon (1996) argue that organizations are not simply made up of collections of individuals but that organizations learn as a whole. They state that "organizational learning occurs when individuals within an organization experience a problematic situation and inquire into it on the organization's behalf…In order to become organizational, the learning that results from organizational inquiry must become embedded in the images of the organization held in members' minds and/or in the epistemological artifacts (like maps, memories, and programs) embedded in the organizational environment." (p. 16). 

Senge (2006) points out that "learning organizations are possible because, deep down, we are all learners. No one has to teach an infant to learn. In fact, no one has to teach infants anything. They are intrinsically inquisitive, masterful learners who learn to walk, speak, and pretty much run their households all on their own" (p. 4). This description of why it is possible to have learning organizations merges quite well with Bruner's own thoughts and theories about learning.

Leadership Intelligence

Bruner addresses the idea of leadership intelligence from the perspective of a teacher in the classroom. He states "different approaches to learning and different forms of instruction reflect differing beliefs and assumptions about the learner" (Bruner, 1996, p. 50). In other words, as the leader of the classroom the teacher must understand the differing needs and learning styles of the students in the classroom in order to lead learning.

For example, as a teacher does one want students to grasp the concepts of algebra or writing or just be able to work from memorization? If a student is just working from memorization then the "knowledge" is most likely short lived. If, on the other hand, the student is able to, as Bruner calls it, "derive the unknown from the known" (p. 51) then learning has actually taken place.

Another aspect of leadership intelligence that Bruner addresses is the idea that those in leadership must understand is that they must "think about what they know in order to know what they know" (Bruner, 1996, p. 52). Without reflecting on what one knows there is no real true cognition of that learning.

Bruner (1996) also indirectly addresses the aspect of leadership intelligence through what he terms "selfhood" (p. 35). He breaks selfhood into two categories. The first is agency which he defines as the "sense that one can initiate and carry out activities on one's own" (p. 35). This carries with it the idea that the leader has certain knowledge which will allow him/her to carry out the role of leader. The second category is evaluation. Bruner notes that as leaders "we evaluate our efficacy in bringing off what we hoped for or were asked to do" (p. 37).

Finally, Bruner speaks of the ability of the leader to help those who follow "create a version (or perhaps vision) of the world in which they envisage a place for themselves" (Bruner, 1996, p. 39).

In the context of organizational learning then the leader must have a developed leadership intelligence that will enable him/her to have a sense of confidence that they are up to the challenge of leadership and the ability to reflect on the results of their actions in order to make corrections in the course they have plotted. This willingness to make correction in the course will also lead to those who follow seeing a high level of personal authenticity in the leader. It should also provide a trickle down effect that will empower others to begin to have a vision for their role in the organization.

Learning

Being able to promote learning is not the same as teaching. One cannot teach another all that they need to know but they can assist in helping another to understand the need for learning how to learn. Bruner (1971) defines learning as "codified knowledge" (p. 14).  He also notes that there are primarily three avenues to learning: "action" (p. 7), "imagery" (p. 7), and "representation by symbol" (p. 8). Action involves learning through doing. Imagery involves learning through stopping the action and reducing it to an icon. Representation by symbol involves learning by experimenting with varying combinations in order to reach a solution which may or may not exist.

Bruner (1961) states that the "conception of the learning process as depicted by psychology (has) gradually shifted away from an emphasis upon the production of general understanding to an emphasis on the acquisition of specific skills" (p. 5). In other words, the focus is on the attainment of mastery of concepts that will enable the learner to find the answers on their own.

Bruner (1996) also points out that there are different approaches to learning. These include "imitation, instruction, discovery, and collaboration" (p. 50). Again, coming from the perspective of being an educational psychologist concerned with how children learn, Bruner identifies four models of mind and pedagogy:

•          "Seeing children as imitative learners: The acquisition of know-how" (p. 53).

•          "Seeing children as learning from didactic exposure: The acquisition of propositional knowledge" (p. 54).

•          "Seeing children as thinkers: The development of intersubjective interchange" (p. 56).

•          "Seeing children as knowledgeable: the management of ‘objective' knowledge" (p. 60).

The first model of the acquisition of know-how involves learning by imitating. In imitative learning it is repetition that brings the learning. Competency is brought about through continuous practice. The draw back to this type of learning is that it does little to bring about innovative thinking.

The model of learning through the acquisition of propositional knowledge is based on the idea that a "teacher" presents the "students" with facts and rules under the assumption that the student has no knowledge of the subject material. The idea is that the learners will then remember and apply the information given to them. The draw back to this model is that the assumption is made that the mind of the student is like an empty receptacle with no previous knowledge upon which to build and that there is no active interpretation on the part of the learner.

The model of learning through the development of intersubjective interchange finds the "teacher" seeking to understand what the "student" thinks and how they came to that conclusion. The "student" is seen as constructing their own models as opposed to simply accepting the model of a "teacher". One downside to this model of mind is that it makes defining knowledge very subjective and potentially relative.

The final model is that of management of objective knowledge. An example of this learning model would be the process a person who has grown up in the Church goes through when making belief personal. While culturally they may have held to some level of belief when they begin to ask the hard questions about their faith and come away with a sense that the faith is now theirs' personally they have experienced the management of objective knowledge.

In the context of organizational learning one must come to an understanding that none of these models stand alone as the primary way to learn. In fact, in most instances it takes a combination of two or more of the models to cause learning. In a sense, it goes back to the idea of multiple intelligences and differentiated learning styles.

Adult Learning

Bruner is an educational psychologist who focuses primarily on how children learn. As a result, much of this section is inferred by this author. Based on the work Bruner has done on learning it would seem as though there are some things that can be generalized for adult learning. Bruner would be clear that his understanding is that children learn much differently than adult but there is still some generalization that can be done.  First of all, the idea that doing is an important part of learning. Sweetman, Ulrich, and Smallwood (2007) refer to the 70-20-10 truism. They note that "70 percent of learning takes place ‘on the job', 20 percent comes from feedback, and only 10 percent can be attributed to formal training" (p. 46). This would seem to line up with Bruner's observation of how learning occurs as well.

In adult learning the idea is that the student will understand the "why" of leaning and thereby be engaged in the "what" of learning. This too would seem to fit in one of Bruner's model of mind: management of objective knowledge. The learner takes what he/she already knows and builds upon it in order to become master of the learning.

Bruner would also emphasize a need for understanding the culture of both the organization and of the individual. He would emphasize that even an adult will be affected by his culture when it comes to learning. The environment in which one has lived will impact the perspective one has on what is important to learn. It will color the perspective of the learner as well.

It may be necessary to unlearn or reverse one's learning at times. For example this author grew up believing in evolution and before the belief in a literal creation could truly take root a process of unlearning evolution had to take place. Learning means to internalize information and not the memorization of information for the sake of regurgitation on a test or essay.

Instructional Design

Bruner (2006) was concerned that a lack of proper design for instruction would cause a lack of learning. He saw the need for careful instructional design with differentiated learning styles and multiple intelligences included in the learning activities. Bruner also noted that when people are treated as "responsible, contributing parties to the group all benefit" (p. 77). With that in mind, instructional design needs to incorporate strategies that include activities that address as many different learning styles as possible and that are intentional in making each member of the organization feel as though their contributions are valued.

There is also the aspect of needing to design the instruction in such a way that the student first understands why the learning is necessary so that they become more likely to be engaged in the learning. With busy schedules adults resent when they are assigned work they see only as busy work and not as learning.

Imagery

Bruner (1966) notes that a very young child copes through the use of "a technique of representation through imagery that is relatively free of action" (p. 1). As the child grows older it begins to combine imagery and action into language. This is all part of the process "by which growing human beings represent their experience of the world" (p.1).

Bruner refers to an unpublished study Kuhlman (1960) which found that children with high imagery were better at performing tasks in which they had to learn how to associate verbal labels which were arbitrary with pictures. On the other hand, children with high imagery did poorly at forming concepts.

Early on in school students learn to imagery in order to learn. For example, the alphabet is frequently learned through the use of such imagery as A is for Apple. Books are filled with many pictures and few words in order assist students in leaning to read through the use of imagery.

In the context of organizational learning it seems as though Bruner would highly recommend the use of imagery as a learning tool. Once the learner is able to associate an image with the concept it appears as though the learning becomes concrete.

Individuation

Maslow (1968) refers to individuation as self actualization. Bruner does not directly address the concept but some idea of how he would address the issue can be inferred form his work. It would seem as though Bruner would endorse the concept that as one grows older learning is internalized as opposed to externalized learning one experiences when young. In other words, one begins to choose his/her core beliefs. When one is young, to a large extent, the values held are those held by those who make up the culture and environment of the child. As time passes on and the child moves into adulthood he/she begins to realize that they must choose for themselves the set of core values to which they will ascribe.

Organizational Learning

Bruner was primarily focused on how children learn and the need to create strategies that would make it possible for all children to learn. Nonetheless there do appear to be some concepts and ideas that can be generalized to assist in organizational learning.

The understanding that not everyone learns in the same way is important in developing organizational learning strategies. Differentiated learning strategies are key to optimizing training programs and for the enhancement of learning within an organization. One size simply does not fit all.

An understanding of not only the organizational culture but of the culture of the individual members of the organization also plays a vital role in designing organizational learning strategies. Members of some cultures may be primarily visual learners while members of other cultures learn primarily from hearing and yet others by doing. A training officer needs to understand these differences in order to effectively empower members of the organization to learn.

Argyris and Schon (1996) make the case for double-loop learning within the context of an organization. Double-loop learning goes beyond single-loop learning or "instrumental learning that changes strategies of action or assumptions underlying strategies in ways that leave the values of a theory of action unchanged" (p. 20). Double-loop learning is "learning that results in a change in the values of theory-in-use, as well as in its strategies and assumptions" (p. 21). A difficulty in getting buy-in for double loop learning may be the size of the organization. The larger an organization is the more compartmentalized it may become making double-loop learning more difficult to achieve.

Senge (2006) points out that it is systems thinking, or the fifth discipline, that is the glue that hold together mental models, team learning, the building of shared vision, and personal mastery and truly promotes organizational learning. An organization that practices pieces of the above noted list will likely quickly find that little organizational learning is actually happening within the organization.

Knowledge Management

Bruner's views on the importance of allowing everyone to have an opportunity to learn might lead one to believe that he would be in favor of allowing equal access to knowledge within the context of an organization. He would temper that with the caveat of making access to knowledge fit the level of need for an individual within an organization. Bruner, it would seem, would also encourage a level of knowledge that would encourage new learning and the opportunity to be innovative on the part of the members of the organization.

Bruner makes it clear, for example, that teachers need to have wide latitude in developing instructional strategies for their classrooms. In the context of knowledge management, it would seem that Bruner would favor wide latitude for individuals within an organization to have the opportunity to access organizationally held knowledge.

Those Who Influenced Bruner

There are several learning theorists and educational psychologists who influenced Bruner. This section will endeavor to take a look at those influences and how they influenced Bruner.

Charles Darwin

One would really have to go back to Charles Darwin as one who influenced Bruner. Bruner refers frequently to the theory of evolution as a starting point for understanding learning. Bruner (1971) has a chapter entitled "The Perfectibility of Intellect in which he has a section he calls "The Evolution of Primate Intelligence." In this section he refers to an experiment in which a chimpanzee is taught to use a tool for getting at termites in the ground. He argues that this "learning" is indicative of how man slowly evolved into a tool-using organism.

Bruner (1971) speaks to the idea that "the full evolution of human intelligence required for its movement the presence of bipedalism and tool use in early hominids" (p. 8). He goes on to write the following: "it was not a large-brained hominid that developed the technical-social way of life in the human, but rather the tool-using, cooperative pattern that gradually changed man's morphology by favoring the tool user over the heavy-jawed, smaller brained creature who depended on his morphology alone" (pp. 8-9). Bruner notes that this occurred about 100,000 years ago.

Another feature that Bruner attributes to evolution is impulse control. Bruner indicates that as man evolved form primate he began to have more control of his central nervous system. As a result of this control and increased reasoning power he began to be able to control his impulses.

Finally, Bruner credits evolution with causing humans to take longer to develop into adults from childhood than other species which allow for more learning through doing and imagery which in turn keeps the cycle of learning moving forward and improving.

Lev Vygotsky

Bruner refers often to the work of Vygotsky in his writings. Vygotsky (1926/1997) was influential in molding Bruner's thinking that as student is not taught by the teacher or tutor but teaches himself when the teacher has created the proper atmosphere and environment for learning. Bruner advocates this throughout his writings.

Vygotsky was born in 1896 in Byelorussia. He died in 1934. He was a Russian educational psychologist who embraced Marxism as means to understanding human behavior. Vygotsky was one of the first to challenge the accepted behaviorist theories of learning of the day. He believed strongly in cognitive learning theory.

Bruner (1971) complains that psychologists "denied there was a problem beyond of development the quantative one of providing more experience" (pp. 54-55). He then qualifies his comments by stating that Vygotsky and Piaget were exceptions to that complaint.

Vygotsky also influenced Bruner in his wholehearted acceptance of Darwinism. Vygotsky (1926/1997) was scornful of what he called the "epoch of religious thinking, a conception of miraculous purposefulness, by means of which animal and plant organisms were supposed to have been constructed" (p. 20). He calls such thought "pre-scientific" (p. 20). He goes on to call the rejection of this worldview "the greatest conquest of scientific thought" (p. 20).

Vygotsky (1926/1997) posits the following for educational success: "Education is realized through the student's own experience, which is wholly determined by the environment, and the role of the teacher then reduces to directing and guiding the environment" (p. 50). Bruner would refer to the environment as the culture which dictates what, if any, learning, takes place but there is little doubt that Vygotsky had great influence on the thinking of Bruner.

Vygotsky also influenced Bruner in the area of language. This is probably the area in learning theory for which Vygotsky is best known. Language is defined as "the fundamental element realized by our thinking" (Vygotsky, 1997/1997, p. 169). Bruner (1971) takes the work of Vygotsky on the grammatical aspect of language and finds that the structure of "groupings was found to become increasingly superordinate with age and less complexive and thematic" (p. 45).      

Jean Piaget

Piaget was a well known cognitive learning theorist who was born in 1896 and died in 1980. He was a contemporary of Bruner and is best known for his theory Cognitive Development. Piaget (1954) laid out the four stages of cognitive development:

•          Sensori-motor level

•          Semiotic function

•          Concrete operations of thought

•          Propositional operations.

The sensori-motor level would include the ages from birth until approximately the age of two. This includes several stages including the sucking reflex stage, first habits or acquired behaviors, coordination between vision and understanding, uncovering that which is hidden, searching, and immediate comprehension.

The semiotic function included deferred imitation, symbolic play, drawing, mental images, language, and logic.

Concrete operations of thought include, the ability to categorize, social and affective interactions, moral feelings and judgments, and autonomy.

Propositional operations include formal thought, induction, affective transformations, and the moving from childhood into adulthood.

Piaget was Marxist in philosophy which seems to be an ongoing trait seen in those who had the most influence on Bruner. This should perhaps not be too surprising since in the first half of the twentieth century it was fashionable among the academic elite to embrace Marxism.

Bruner would agree with Piaget when it comes to cognitive learning theory but would disagree with the idea that the stages of development are so readily seen. Bruner would be more inclined to see these stages a having blurred lines and that one is constantly revisiting each stage of development throughout life. Piaget himself seems to dance around defining how one can readily recognize when a child passes from one stage to the next. Bruner (1996) noted "Piaget's views are always to be taken seriously in this regard…The Child's mind does not move to higher levels of abstraction like the tide coming in" (p. 120).

Those Bruner Influenced

This section will briefly list some of those whom Bruner influenced and how. There will also some who seem to have been influenced by the work if Bruner even though they may not have referenced him in their work. In addition, much of what is seen through the influence of Maslow and others would appear to also have been influenced by Bruner and other cognitive learning theorists.

Howard Gardner

Gardner (1999) discusses how he had intended to study law but "after meeting Jerome Bruner, a pioneering researcher of cognition and human development, and after reading the works of Bruner…I decided instead to undertake graduate studies in cognitive-development psychology" (pp. 27-28). In another book Gardner (1983) states "…Jerome Bruner, more than any other developmental psychologists of our time has been interested in education and has proved sensitive to the range of issues discusses in the latter part of this book…I owe a large debt to Jerome Bruner for attuning me to this nexus of issues" (p.326). From this one begins to understand the depth of influence Bruner had on Gardner.

Some of the areas which Gardner (1983) credits Bruner with causing him to be attuned with include "the child's biological heritage, his preferred avenues of development, and the formative effects of culture, including the role of tools, symbol systems, media, and other prostheses in the devising and the transmission of knowledge" (p. 326). It was out of his understanding of Bruner's work that Gardner began to formulate his theory of multiple intelligences.

One can see the similarities in the work of Bruner and Gardner. Both are proponents of the idea that a child should create his own model of learning. Both posit that culture and environment play a critical role in the way a person learns. Bruner and Gardner agree that there is no "cookie-cutter" approach to learning that will be effective.

Bruner speaks of differentiated instruction while Gardner speaks of creating learning scenarios in which students learn based on their type of intelligence. While they use different terminology it is not difficult to see how the work of Bruner has played a direct role in the shaping of Gardner's theory.

Gardner also subscribes to Bruner's idea that the mind of a child is not a clean slate at birth. Genetics and culture are imbedded in the mind and have to be taken into consideration when developing a learning path.

Thomas Berry Brazelton

Dr. Thomas Berry Brazelton is a noted pediatrician who was a student of Dr. Bruner at Harvard. Dr. Brazelton developed the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale which is used to build a behavioral profile of infants. In addition, he has authored or co-authored over 250 books and articles he is probably the best known pediatrician since Benjamin Spock. Brazelton references Bruner in numerous writings.

Dixon, Levine, Richman, and Brazelton (1984) describe the use of a learning tool that was a modified version of one developed by Dr. Bruner. Brazelton et al believed that the work Bruner had done fit the learning experiment they were involved with using women and children from the United States (U.S.) and Kenya. There were three study groups based on the age of the children involved in the study.

The study's results appear to have borne out the learning theories of Bruner. He posited that culture plays a major role in children's learning. The study found that in infants there was a distinct difference between the U.S. children and the Kenyan children. The U.S. children spent more time playing with the toys outside the scope of the research while the Kenyan children attempted the task more frequently. The Kenyan children also interacted far more frequently with their mothers than did the U.S. children.

In the children aged 12-14 months the mothers of the U.S. children worked to simplify the tasks for their children while the Kenyan mothers remained passive. In the final group of children aged 19-25 months the U.S. children were frequently distracted form the task than were the Kenyan children who were fully engaged in the task and ignored outside stimuli. This research appears to bear out Bruner's theories regarding the role of culture in learning.

This research project helps to illustrate the influence of Bruner on Brazelton. It also validates at least a part of the cognitive learning theory of Bruner.

Edward E. Jones

Edward Jones, noted psychologist, was also a student of Bruner's at Harvard. He has been published on numerous occasions in various journals in psychology. The influence of Bruner led Jones to be an outspoken opponent of behavioral learning theory.

Jones and Harris (1967) speak to the effect that culture has on the development of attitudes toward learning. This again was influenced by the teachings of Bruner.

Conclusion

Dr. Bruner has brought to light much about cognitive learning theory. What began as a reaction against behavioral learning theory has blossomed into a respected learning theory in its own right. Bruner has taken what at the time was seemingly obscure work by people like Vygotsky and brought it to the forefront of learning theory.

Although there do seem to be some holes in cognitive learning theory, there are also some points that learning officers would be well served to keep in mind. Unquestionably, culture does play a role in learning and cannot be overlooked. In order to insure learning for all members of an organization, culture must be addressed in training and learning programs. 

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