Electronic Portfolio for Kevin Jones

Table of Contents
I. Introduction
II. Leadership Philosophy Paper
III. Professional Section
A. Resume
B. Transcripts
      1. Allegheny Wesleyan College
      2. Indiana Wesleyan University
C. Certificate of Accomplishment
D. Letters of Recommendation
      1. Dr. Larry Lindsay
       2. Dr. Mike Bonner
       3. Michael Manning
IV. Domains
A. Servant as Leader
       1. Domain Introduction
       2. Reflected Best Self Exercise (Practice)
B. Personal Authenticity
       1. Domain Introduction
       2. Personal Awareness
       3. Spiritual Formation Plan II (Practice)
C. Organizational Theory and Research
       1. Domain Introduction
       2. Literature Review (Scholarship)
       3. Leadership Philosophy – New Learning
           (Practice)
D. Organizational Learning
       1. Domain Introduction
       2. Jerome Bruner: Cognitive Learning Theorist
          (Scholarship)
       3. Leadership Learning Pact (Practice)
E. Change, Innovation, and Entrepreneurship
       1. Domain Introduction
       2. Strategic Change for the Center for Distributed Learning
       3. Intentional Change Project (Practice
F. Globalization
       1. Domain Introduction
       2. Analysis/Reflection Paper (Scholarship)
       3. Seminar Reflection Paper: Jo Anne Lyon
           (Practice)
G. Ethics and Governance
       1. Domain Introduction
       2. Ethical Philosophy of Leadership (Scholarship)
       3. Ethical Dilemma (Practice)

Review of Literature on Adult Learners in Online Education

Kevin Jones

Indiana Wesleyan University

Dr. Sharon Drury

DOL 740 Organizational Theory & Research

June 14, 2007

Revised June 27, 2008

Review of Literature and Review of Student Retention and Online Learning

Introduction

The question this writer asks relates to online learning and student retention of the adult learner is: How does creating effective online programs affect learning and retention? In order to begin to understand how to create effective learning and student retention in online programs there must be an understanding of learning. Eggen and Kauchak (2001, p. 9) define learning as "an active process in which learners' attempt to make sense of what they study." Webster's (Morehead & Morehead, 1995, p. 391) defines learn as follows "acquire knowledge, systemic knowledge." Woolfolk (1995) notes that learning can be defined as either the acquiring of knowledge or the construction of knowledge which would seem to agree with the definition offered up by Eggen and Kauchak.

Learning, as previously defined, leads one to consider differentiated instructional methods to insure to the greatest degree possible that all students become engaged in the learning process. No longer can one say that learning can only take place through simply practicing the art of lecture or whole group instruction within the classroom (O'Lawrence, 2006). Salter (2003) notes that comparative studies of online versus traditional teaching is difficult to quantify due to the fact that most comparative studies are small in scope and as such are difficult to generalize. Clearly, the idea that the traditional approach to teaching is the best way for learning to occur is being challenged (O'Lawrence, 2006).

One responsible for online curriculum development must be aware of multiple factors impacting learning in order to engage the best possible learning in students. A couple of these factors would include cultural differences and diversity in learning styles among students. Taking into account these factors will allow students a better opportunity to become engaged in learning as identified in Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom, 1956). Bloom notes that there are six levels of learning. They are as follows:

1. Knowledge- observation and recall of information

2. Comprehension-understanding information

3. Application-use information

4. Analysis-seeing patterns

5. Synthesis-use old ideas to create new ideas

6. Evaluation-compare and discriminate between ideas

These definitions might lead one to argue that course material must involve material deemed relevant and immediately useful in daily life or the adult learner will not be engaged in learning. Getting the learner from simple knowledge to evaluation should be the goal of program and course designers.

Characteristics of the Adult Learner

Yi (2005, p. 34) notes that there are typically five characteristics of the adult learner: adults are "self-directed, goal orientated, task and problem centered, diverse, and intrinsically motivated." Boulmetis (1999) observes that adults have a distinct need for independence in learning.

One must understand that not all adults are adult learners in the truest sense of the words. Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (1998) note that self-directed learning correlates with the personal maturity of the individual adult. Ellsworth (1992) addresses the fact that the more formal education an adult has experienced the more likely they are to be self-directed. O'Lawrence (2006) notes that the fact that some adults lack the self-discipline necessary to be successful in an online program. In other cases some adults may lack the time management skills that are also needed to succeed in the online environment.

Leidner and Jarvenpaa (1995) go so far as to say that students who lack self-discipline and time management skills might be better served if they are directed toward the classroom setting. On the other hand, students with these skills may prefer the online format of courses in order to work at their own pace within the bounds of the course requirements. They may be less willing to share their work in a classroom with those they perceive to be less motivated and less skilled then themselves.

Dwyer (2004) notes that adult learners have little patience with what a facilitator thinks might be important to learn due to their own experiences and therefore the learning must be related to those experiences. Scaffolding new learning with previous learning is a key factor in adult education.

Advantages of Online Education for Adults

There are some clear reasons why online learning has become popular in recent years. O'Lawrence (2006) notes some of these reasons are:

1. It opens up new opportunities for students who might otherwise be excluded from participation in the learning process (p. 47).

2. Learners have the opportunity to pursue lifelong learning after graduation, regardless of lifestyle or location (p. 47).

Some of the advantages to online learning as outlined by Zhao (2003) include:

It provides learners with the flexibility of learning, improves the quality of learning due because online deliver provides the opportunity to increase the quantity and quality of interaction between student and teacher, improves access to education and training, reduces the cost of education, improves the cost-effectiveness of education, empowers learners to know more and learn faster, and accelerates the formation of new programs (p. 215).

Advantages for Institutions

Volery and Lord (2000) note that there are primarily four reasons why educational institutions embrace online education. They include:

1. Expanding access

2. Alleviating capacity restraints

3. Capitalizing on emerging market opportunities

4. Serving as a catalyst for institutional transformation (p. 216)

Key Factors in Online Learning

Volery and Lord (2000) note that there are three key factors that are critical to online learning; technology, instructor effectiveness, and student characteristics.

Technology

Technology must be simple and easy to navigate. While there is a temptation to increase the amount of technology in online courses, one must avoid adding technologies that hamper ease of navigation.

Bedore, Bedore, and Bedore (1998) indicate that an essential in online delivery is ease of use. They also note that those charged with the design of courses must have a thorough understanding of the "skill level required to use a given technology" (p. 73) in order to select the proper delivery system. O'Lawrence (2006) concludes that "the instructional strategies are what really make a difference in how adults learn online, not technology itself" (p. 49).

Student characteristics also play a role in the success of online students. Students who are very familiar with technology will tend to find the online modality more comfortable and therefore be willing to complete a degree online (Volery & Lord, 2000).

Instructor effectiveness

The instructor, or facilitator, plays a key role in the online retention. Their interaction, or lack thereof, will be a huge factor in whether or not a student will have a good experience with online learning. The facilitator must be quick to respond to questions or comments from the students. They must provide in depth feedback that helps to paint the picture of what the expectation are for a particular course. Ducharme-Hansen and Dupin-Bryant (2005) note that "professor immediacy behaviors such as recognition and feedback are a fundamental means of humanizing the web-based education experience" (p. 36).

The facilitator must understand that written communication is perceived much differently than oral communication. The lack of ability to see the expression on the face and tone of voice requires that the online facilitator be very aware of the tone of their responses, or postings, in the online course. The facilitator must develop a personal voice and tone when facilitating online courses (Merrill, 2003). He also lists the following suggestions for effective communication when facilitating an online course:

1. Create inclusive, supportive and engaging climate, using learners' names often;

2. Develop a personal conversational style;

3. Use inclusive language, such as we and our;

4. Use a neutral, balanced tone in all communications; and

5. Provide a space for everyone to post an introduction and share appropriate parts of their personal life to develop the online learning community (p. 15).

Fisher and Baird (2005) have stated that "in the end, successful web-based learning comes when instructors and designers recognize first the importance of cultivating relationships" (p. 105). This building of facilitator-student and student-student relationships is key in the retention of online students. Students who feel connected will be more likely to remain in the course/program than those who feel disconnected from the instructor and the other students.

How can these relationships be established? One method is through the use of asynchronous discussions within a course. These require the students to give input in a reasonably anonymous way that will empower students who would typically be unwilling to take the risk of participating in a discussion in a face-to-face setting to offer their views. As the student's insights are affirmed by the facilitator and by fellow students healthy relationships begin to blossom. This seems to be particularly true with women. In a study of female students by Cerezo (2004), results showed that the use of this type of collaboration brought increased learning. This may be a result of having increased the self-esteem of the students by allowing them to play an important role in planning their own learning. It may also be the result of allowing them increased social interaction through collaboration.

Lewinson (2005) found that oftentimes the standards for asynchronous learning are established by scholars whose area of expertise lies within the framework of traditional university settings and as such may not be in the best interest of non-traditional settings. This may also result in retention rates being lower due to a lack of understanding of the adult learner.

Sieber (2005) builds on the eight principles for effective teaching as developed by Keeton, Sheckley, and Krejci-Griggs (2002) in laying out a framework for effective facilitation in the online environment. The framework includes:

1. The creation of a learning environment that encourages inquiry (p. 333).

2. An attempt to broaden the learner's experience of the subject matter (p. 333). This may be done through the encouragement of students to incorporate their life experiences into their studies.

3. Cultivate active and critical reflection by the students. (p. 333). This can be done through collaborative learning or through reflection on their increased learning.

4. The use of deliberate practice and prompt constructive feedback (p. 334). Students are given feedback that assists them in knowing if they are on the right track and, if not, how to get there. Feedback must be prompt and substantive.

5. The linking of inquiry to issues of high interest (p.334). The learning is perceived as relevant by the learner.

6. Develop learners' effectiveness as learners early in the course (p. 335). The assignments allow the students to increase their learning skills.

7. Clarify learning goals (p. 335). This includes encouraging students to put their learning into practice.

8. Provide an optimal balance of challenge and support (335).

Zhao (2003) notes that course effectiveness and relevance are keys to the learning of online students. Online courses must be kept up to date and must maintain relevance. In other words, a course containing a case study that looked positively at Enron would not be deemed current and likely would not be considered by students as relevant.

Course Design

In addition to the need for ease of navigation in technology, course materials must also be designed with ease of navigation in mind. Assumptions of previous knowledge must be avoided in the design of course. Step-by-step instructions must be clear and their layout must be designed for reasonably quick perusal.

Retention Predictors

Dupin-Bryant (2004) found that there are two predictors in regards to retention of adult learners in online programs. The first is their previous educational experience. Dupin-Bryant identifies these as being "cumulative grade point average and number of previous course completed online" (p. 204). The second area is that of the student's previous computer experience. While the number of years one had worked with computers did not turn out to be a factor, the type of work done on a computer was a factor. Dupin-Bryant found that students who were familiar with "1) searching for information on the Web, 2) operating systems and file management, and 3) Internet applications" (p. 204) were more likely to remain in an online program.

DeTure (2004) concludes that learning style and self-efficacy are poor predictors of retention in adult learners. The issue with this study is that it examines students who were comfortable enough with their technology skills to enroll in an online program and therefore gave evidence of high self-efficacy across the board. Future research will need to be done including students who enrolled in online programs because there was no feasible alternative as opposed to their confidence in their technology skills.

Kemp (2002) found no correlation with persistence in adult learners and retention. Kemp defined the three factors of persistence as "resilience, life events, and external commitments" (p. 67). Lack of persistence may be more of a predictor of courses and programs students may avoid than as a predictor of retention. On the other hand, Kemp did find that work commitment was a significant predictor of retention.

Morris, Sz-Shyan, and Finnegan (2005) found the availability of financial assistance to be another possible predictor of retention. They also note that a higher grade point average from high school or previous university courses might be a predictor of retention. In other words, the lack of stress in regards to the funding of one's education may help to increase retention rates. In addition, having had success in previous academic endeavors may also assist retention among students.

Conclusion

The research regarding retention in adult online programs appears to be vast and yet difficult to sift through due to the fact that much of the research that has been done about retention has been very small in scope which makes generalization difficult is not impossible. Sample sizes have typically been small. In addition, the research has tended to focus on retention in individual courses as opposed to being program wide.

There are some factors that are consistent in the research. These include the need for the technology and course materials to e easily navigated. Another consistent factor has been the need for social interaction among students through the use of discussion forums. A third factor that has been consistent has been the need for interaction with the instructor in the discussion forums as well as through timely, quality feedback on assignments.

There does appear to be a need for a broader study of factors that may allow for better prediction of retention. This would include larger sample sizes as well as the study of entire programs as opposed to simply researching individual courses.

References

Bedore, G. L., Bedore, M. R., & Bedore, G. L. (1998). Online education: the future is now... (2nd ed.). Phoenix, AZ: Art Press.

Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals: Handbook 1, cognitive domain. New York: Longmans and Green.

Boulmetis, J. (1999). Characteristics of adults as learners are not culturally defined [Electronic version]. Adult Learning, 11(1), 2.

Cerezo, N. (2004). Problem-based learning in the middle school: A research case study of the perceptions of at-risk females. Research in Middle Level Education online, 27(1). Retrieved January 15, 2007, from http://www.nmsa.org/research/rmle/winter_3/27_1_article_4.htm

DeTure, M. (2004). Cognitive style and self-efficacy: Predicting student success in online distance education [Electronic version]. The American Journal of Distance Education, 18(1), 21-38.

Ducharme-Hansen, B. A., & Dupin-Bryant, P. A. (2005). Course planning for online adult learners [Electronic version]. TechTrends, 49(2), 31-39.

Dupin-Bryant, P. A. (2004). Pre-entry variables related to retention in online distance education [Electronic version]. The American Journal of Distance Education, 18(4), 199-206.

Dwyer, R. T. (2004). Employee development using adult education principles [Electronic version]. Industrial and Commercial Training, 36(2), 79-85.

Eggen, P. D., & Kauchak, D. P. (2001). Strategies for teachers: Teaching content and thinking skills (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Ellsworth, J. H. (1992). Adults' learning [Electronic version]. Journal of Adult Education, 21(1), 23-34.

Fisher, M., & Baird, D. E. (2005). Online learning design that fosters student support, self-regulation, and retention [Electronic version]. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 22(2), 88-107.

Keeton, M., Sheckley, B., & Krejci-Griggs, J. (2002). Effectiveness and efficiency in higher education. Chicago: Kendall-Hunt.

Kemp, W. C. (2002). Persistence of adult learners in distance education [Electronic version]. The American Journal of Distance Education, 16(2), 65-81.

Knowles, M. S., Elwood, F. H., & Swanson, R. R. (1998). The adult learner: the definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (5^th ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf.

Leidner, D. E., & Jarvenpaa, S. L. (1995). The use of information technology to enhance management school education: A theoretical view. MIS Quarterly, 19(3), 265-291.

Lewinson, J. (2005). Asynchronous discussion forums in the changing landscape of the online learning environment [Electronic version]. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 22(3), 162-167.

Merrill, H. S. (2003). Best practices for online facilitation [Electronic version]. Adult Learning, 14(2), 13-16.

Morehead, A., & Morehead, L. (Eds.). (1995). The new American Webster dictionary (3rd ed.). New York: Signet.

Morris, L. V., Sz-Shyan, W., & Finnegan, C. L. (2005). Predicting retention in online general education courses [Electronic version]. The American Journal of Distance Education, 19(1), 23-36.

O'Lawrence, H. (2006). The influences of distance learning on adult learners [Electronic version]. Techniques, 81(5), 47-49.

Salter, G. (2003). Comparing online and traditional teaching - a different approach [Electronic version]. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 20(4), 137-145.

Sieber, J. E. (2005). Misconceptions and realities about teaching online [Electronic version]. Science and Engineering Ethics, 11(3), 329-340.

Volery, T., & Lord, D. (2000). Critical success factors in online education [Electronic version]. The International Journal of Education Management, 14(5), 216-223.

Woolfolk, A. (1995). Educational psychology. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Yi, J. (2005). Effective ways to foster learning [Electronic version]. Performance Improvement, 44(1), 34-38.

Zhao, F. (2003). Enhancing the quality of higher education through measurement [Electronic version]. Quality Assurance in Education, 11(4), 214-221.